At the landscape level, large herbivores may have a structuring effect on the dynamics of grassland, shrubs and tree mosaics. The presence of light-demanding trees and thorny shrubs in temperate fertile grasslands and woodlands may reflect adaptations to now-extinct large grazers. In an experiment, we found that regenerating Oaks profit from grazing through enhanced light availability, but need protection from grazing damage through associational resistance with thorny shrubs. Extensive grazing by large introduced grazers in temperate fertile grasslands may induce a shifting mosaic of grassland, shrubs and trees with a high conservation value.

In conclusion, large mammalian herbivores have positive effects on biodiversity in productive grasslands. Where large herbivores went (locally) extinct, the re-introduction of these or similar grazers will positively affect grassland biodiversity.