The demise of springs ecosystems: A global ecological crisis

Background/Question/Methods

The demise of springs ecosystems is a global, but largely unrecognized environmental crisis. Springs are hydrologic features where groundwater reaches, and usually flows from, the Earth’s surface, and are among the most biologically diverse, productive, and socio-culturally and scientifically interesting ecosystems on earth. We estimate that more than 500,000 springs may occur in the United States. Approximately 20 percent of the endangered species in the U.S. are springs-specialist taxa, and a vast but untallied number of rare taxa also occur at springs. Ecosystem ecology was initiated by Odum’s (1957) study of Silver Springs, Florida. However, springs ecosystem integrity has been largely ignored by the public, the scientific community, and government agencies. Neglect of springs is further demonstrated by the virtual absence of reference to springs in most contemporary texts and textbooks on national or global freshwater ecosystem health, wetland ecosystems, and water resource management. We reviewed existing literature and use data from our inventories of more than 500 springs throughout western North America to address the question of why springs have received so little attention. We report 6 primary reasons for the general disregard of these important ecosystems.

Results/Conclusions

First, most springs are small: median area = 236 m², average = 1036 (2317 1 sd) m², with few larger than 1 ha, and are below the scale of most landscape mapping efforts. Second, springs commonly emerge at geologic contacts or under heavy vegetation, limiting detection, particularly in remote sensing efforts. Third, until recently the absence of a lexicon has precluded discussion of springs diversity. We report 12 distinctive types of springs, each supporting up to 13 microhabitats in North America. Fourth, springs often are closely protected, limiting access, inventory, and assessment. Furthermore, numerous unsustainable resource practices contribute to springs ecosystem degradation and loss is on-going. Fifth, springs ecosystems are the result of linkage between subterranean and surface processes, but water resource policy and legislation typically only distinguish groundwater from surface water. Lastly, springs ecosystem ecology is multidisciplinary, particularly involving hydrologists and ecosystem ecologists, who rarely communicate with each other. Collectively, these factors contribute to insufficient public, scientific, and governmental attention to springs, and contribute to the on-going demise of these highly threatened, irreplaceable ecosystems. Robust springs stewardship initiatives are warranted at regional, national, and global scales to improve management and protection of springs ecosystems.